List of sundown towns in new jersey

Scattered throughout the Midwest, New England, and California, these towns usually allowed Black people to pass through during the day, especially if they were there to work. But they had to be out after dark. Otherwise, they risked being arrested, beaten, or even murdered by white residents. Though their origins date back to colonial times ...

List of sundown towns in new jersey. NJ history. I came across expression that I wasn't familiar with, a "Sundown Town," so I looked it up and quickly I found myself on the a page that mentions New Jersey having …

Forgotten Story of America's Whites-Only Towns. James Loewen documents the rise of 'sundown towns' and their enduring legacy. Dan Carter 1/21/2008. Advertisement. In the 1980s my wife, a social worker, visited a nursing home on Sand Mountain, a large mountainous plateau in north Georgia that stretches westward into northeastern Alabama.

Sundown towns, also known as sunset towns, gray towns, or sundowner towns, are all- white municipalities or neighborhoods in the United States and Canada that were most prevalent before the mid-20th century, which practiced a form of racial segregation by excluding non-whites via some combination of discriminatory local laws, intimidation or vio...The Green Towns Program was a New Deal initiative that created three planned communities in the United States: Greenbelt, Maryland; Greendale, Wisconsin; and Greenhills, Ohio. Learn more about the history, design, and legacy of these green towns at the Greenbelt Museum website, where you can also find information about other New Deal housing projects, Black architects, and vintage glassware.Ocean City, NJ. #14 in Best New Jersey Beaches. Home to one of the most recognizable boardwalks in the country, Ocean City lives up to its self-proclaimed nickname of "America's Greatest Family ..."Whites Only Within City Limits After Dark" reads the faded road sign, an artifact on display at the Tubman African American Museum in Georgia. The sign was found outside one of Connecticut's sundown towns. Sundown towns were municipalities that prevented African-Americans or other minorities from lingering after dark. Beginning in the 1890s, New England's small towns and rural ...Well Hoboken is only 3.5% black whereas Jersey City is 25% black, so the numbers paint a bleak picture. The reality is its complicated, but due to racist housing policies that weren't banned until the mid 20th century and weren't fully gotten rid of until much later, neighborhoods in NJ ended up becoming very segregated, and that segregation happens to line up with town and school district ...Cranbury. Noreen Braman/500px/Getty Images. Cranbury is one of the oldest towns in New Jersey, and its historical charm remains intact. To learn more about its past, stop inside the Cranbury ...Through discriminatory laws, harassment, and violence, white people pushed Black people out. Sundown towns are a lesser-known part of American history, yet they continue to impact the Black experience in the country. After the Emancipation Proclamation freed slaves and the Civil War ended in 1865, Black people in the South had more mobility.

Increase or decrease the radius for Warren | Towns within 40 mi of Warren | Change Population Restrict to New Jersey State. This page will help you find a list of surrounding towns near Warren, villages, cities nearby or close to the suburbs of Warren within a 40 mile distance (64.36 km) of Warren (New Jersey) to the north, south, east, or west of Warren; typically within a one to two hour ...The Indivisible Project wants to transform grassroots politics. Can it transform itself into a sustainable movement? Tom MacArthur’s town-hall meeting should have been uneventful. ...This question is about Driving Without Insurance @WalletHub • 01/13/21 This answer was first published on 12/10/19 and it was last updated on 01/13/21.For the most current informat...The groundbreaking interview revealed to viewers that sundown towns still existed and made the country more aware of the issue. Sundown towns today. Today, sundown towns may not look like they did during the mid-20th century, but that doesn't mean they don't exist. According to NPR, Martinsville, Indiana, has long been labeled a sundown town.In 1956, 11-year-old William Flanagan was on his way to a little league baseball game and came across a black truck driver who was stranded and in need of food. "He just came out of the woods to ...14. Glen Ridge, NJ. Glen Ridge is one of the wealthiest towns in New Jersey. Located in Essex County, Glen Ridge is a charming town with historic homes and gas lights lighting the tree-lined streets. Glen Ridge is an affluent NJ suburb with a mean household income of $309,916 and a population of 7,802.The conversation around sundown towns typically raises a debate over whether the distinction was explicit — based on written regulation or policy — or not. Some towns and even housing complexes like Lenker Manor in Swatara Township had charters that had exclusionary clauses barring Blacks from buying houses or living within the community.

Pages in category "Port cities and towns in New Jersey" The following 10 pages are in this category, out of 10 total. This list may not reflect recent changes. B. Bayonne, New Jersey; C. Camden, New Jersey; Cape May, New Jersey; E. Elizabeth, New Jersey; H. Hoboken, New Jersey; J. Jersey City, New Jersey; N.[This list is a work in progress. You can assess the information provided to form your own determination as to whether the town is a confirmed sundown town. If you have additional information, pro or con, please email it to us. Also note: some towns are * ’d. They are not suspected sundown towns but are listed for other reasons.Located in South Jersey, Cherry Hill is considered a Philadelphia suburb and is one of the best places to live in New Jersey. This is because of how close it is to Philadelphia – about 20 minutes to be exact. Popular local activities include the Cherry Hill mall, which was one of the very first enclosed malls in America.Mount Tammany. Tantomwom, the native name for Long Hill. Tulpehocken Creek. Upper Pohatcong Mountain. Waackaack Creek alt. Waycake Creek (tributary of Raritan Bay in Monmouth County -its name is given to the Waackaack Rear Range Light) Wagaraw Brook. Wagaraw Mountain. Wampum Brook (tributary of Shrewsbury River in Monmouth County) Wanaque River.by Haven Team. When the phrase "New Jersey" crosses your mind, you might not immediately think about beautiful towns. Many are not aware of New Jersey's tucked-away towns that offer an escape from the frantic city life we're accustomed to. It is our opinion that you should add these spectacular places to your bucket list for the fall ...

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Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. by James W. Loewen. Here I share Excel files of town populations by race for selected states. Some are much more complete than others. If you develop such a file for a state not included here, or a more comprehensive file for a state that is included here, kindly email it to me and I'll post ...florida man april 9, 2007 sonesta columbus menu sundown towns in new jersey. mcdonough middle school student killed; sundown towns in new jersey. By -On average, the state's property taxes rose 1 percent, from $8,953 to $9,112, between 2019 and 2020. It was lower than the 2 percent cap former Gov. Chris Christie put into effect in 2011 ...The Delaware River begins in the state of New York in the town of Jefferson. The Delaware River spans over 330 miles in length through the states of New Jersey, New York, Maryland,...

SPLC is a nonprofit, tax-exempt 501(c)(3) organization (EIN: 63-0598743) The Southern Poverty Law Center. 400 Washington Avenue. Montgomery, AL 36104.Increase or decrease the radius for Trenton | Towns within 35 mi of Trenton | Change Population Restrict to New Jersey State. This page will help you find a list of surrounding towns near Trenton, villages, cities nearby or close to the suburbs of Trenton within a 35 mile distance (56.32 km) of Trenton (New Jersey) to the north, south, east, or west of Trenton; typically within a one to two ...His book, "Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism," came out in 2005 and spawned the website. ... His new book looks at 1918 Minnesota, when flu, war and fires converged: tinyurl.com ...In 1956, 11-year-old William Flanagan was on his way to a little league baseball game and came across a black truck driver who was stranded and in need of food. "He just came out of the woods to ...Some New Jersey towns are majority Italian-American. Check out our map to see if yours is one of them. ... Jersey City Population: 247,597 / Italian-Americans: 12,840. Berkeley Population: 41,255 ...Located in sherman oaks on longview valley road, the new 2021 show premieres on dec. 2022 california triple crown schedule. For close to three hundred years now, jerseyans have told tales of this mythical beast that stalks the pine barrens and terrorizes local residents. Without a doubt, new jersey's oldest, most enduring, and important ...Image: Boonton. Seth Werkheiser. [CC BY-SA 2.0] via FlickrOne of the best little towns in New Jersey is Boonton, with a population of just under 9,000.. Boonton's Main Street has such a unique feel to it - the way it winds up a hill, with views of treetops visible between buildings.List of Top 15 Beach Towns on the New Jersey Shore. 1. Avalon Beach town, NJ: A paradise for beach lovers. 2. Ocean Grove Town, NJ: Surfing and boogie boarding beach. 3. Sandy Hook beach town: The barrier spit. 4. Brigantine Beach Town, NJ: Clean and family beach.When the opportunity has arisen Canadians have shown themselves just as human as their southern neighbors. History is very nice style. history proved the knowledge. it's location in Canada. I've been reading a fair amount about racial issues lately and stumbled upon "Sundown Towns" in the USA (link below to wiki article if anyone is….In the words of the late, great Anthony Bourdain, “To know Jersey is to love her.” The state might often get a bad rap, thanks to those funky smells right along the Turnpike near Newark Airport, but once you …Nearly two-thirds of those towns are in Bergen, Monmouth and Morris counties. Five New Jersey towns rank among the ultra-rich category with median household incomes higher than $250,000, the point ...[This list is a work in progress. You can assess the information provided to form your own determination as to whether the town is a confirmed sundown town. If you have additional information, pro or con, please email it to us. Also note: some towns are * ’d. They are not suspected sundown towns but are listed for other reasons.

Aug 22, 2020 ... ... lists towns, restaurants, and hotels that are Black-friendly. And if that publication sounds familiar, well, that's because it's based on the ...

These towns are beaming with historical buildings, art galleries, cultural centers, museums, and award-winning restaurants and bakeries. We have curated a list of some of the most beautiful and charming towns in New Jersey. These towns make for the perfect weekend getaway spot for families and couples alike.In a new preface, Loewen puts this history in the context of current controversies around white supremacy and the Black Lives Matter movement. He revisits sundown towns and finds the number way down, but with notable exceptions in exclusive all-white suburbs such as Kenilworth, Illinois, which as of 2010 had not a single black household.The most expensive cities in New Jersey are Short Hills, Englewood Cliffs, Rumson, Franklin Lakes, Upper Saddle River, North Caldwell, Woodcliff Lake, Summit, Princeton, and Ridgewood. Here's a look at the most affordable cities in New Jersey according to the data: Bridgeton. Crestwood Village.Newport (OR) Sedona (AZ) Danville (KY) Ironwood (MI) Newport Beach (CA) Seligman (AZ) Sunrise, sunset and moon phases in over 1071 locations all across United States today.SPRINGFIELD, Ill. (WICS) — Black History Month is a time to celebrate the accomplishments and contributions that black Americans have made in our country, but some parts of the fight for equality can be uncomfortable to remember. In a special report, we are taking a closer look at the formation of what were known as sundown towns. Historians say that a sundown town is a town or city that ...Sign on a restaurant window in Lancaster, Ohio in 1938. Sundown towns were a form of discrimination and segregation prominent in the U.S. during the period after Reconstruction through the first half of the 20th century. The name comes from a warning—with either an explicit or implicit threat of violence—that people of color were not ...A sundown town is a town where only people of a certain ethnic, social, or religious group are allowed in the town after dark. The most infamous examples of sundown towns are probably the all-white towns which were scattered across the United States well through the 1970s. Sundown towns began to wane with the advent of civil rights legislation ...Are you searching for your dream property in the beautiful city of Cape Town? Look no further than Property24, the leading online property marketplace in South Africa. With a wide ...[This list is a work in progress. You can assess the information provided to form your own determination as to whether the town is a confirmed sundown town. If you have additional information, pro or con, please email it to us. Also note: some towns are * ’d. They are not suspected sundown towns but are listed for other reasons. As of 2023, New Jersey is divided into 21 counties and contains 564 municipalities consisting of five types: 252 boroughs, 52 cities, 15 towns, 241 townships, and 4 villages. The largest municipality by population in New Jersey is Newark, with 311,549 residents, whereas the smallest is Walpack Township, with seven residents.

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The state of New Jersey has a population of 8.9 million, making it the 11th most populous state in the U.S. The most populous city is Newark, which has an estimated population of 281,944 in 2017. Jersey City doesn't trail far behind with its population of 264,290 people.Cedar Key — Cedar Key is an American island city located in the Gulf of Mexico, just off the northwest coast of Florida. At the turn of the century, about 1/3rd of the population was Black, but now, there are near enough zero Black citizens living in this town. Cedar Key residents burned down a nearby Black town and killing several in 1923. Corporations of New Jersey: List of Certificates to December 31, 1911 Morgan’s History of the New Jersey Conference of the A.M.E. Church, from 1872 to 1887… Municipalities by County in New Jersey New Jersey Constitutional Convention Proceedings – 1947 New Jersey in the American Revolution, 1763-1783: A Documentary History Location: New York [This list is a work in progress. You can assess the information provided to form your own determination as to whether the town is a confirmed sundown town. If you have additional information, pro or con, please email it to us. Also note: some towns are * 'd. They are not suspected sundown towns but are listed for other ...New Jersey Municipalities Search. This search will list municipalities by county with associated municipality, federal and legislative codes. Complete the optional search below to restrict the list or leave all options blank to list all …8. Hacklebarney State Park Waterfall. Hacklebarney State Park Waterfall with autumn leaves. One of the best places to visit to feel Mother Nature's touch, Hacklebarney State Park offers waterfalls in all different shapes and sizes – from tiny little trickles to the gushing falls at Trout Brook.Sundown Towns in Oregon, Spring 2019. It’s been about 5 years, and the OMA was delighted to collaborate once again with Professor Jean Moule on her course Sundown Towns in Oregon, based on the book Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism by James W. Loewen. In 2012 and 2013, our partnership resulted in two small exhibits ...of the Deep South, was a sundown town from 1889 to 1967 or for 78 years. Sundown. implementation practices resulting in ongoing racial cleansing and exclusion include a. variety of extra-legal ...Profiles for 120 cities, towns and other populated places in Sussex County New Jersey. Incorporated Cities, Towns & Census Designated Places in Sussex County. Incorporated Places have an asterisk (*). Andover * Branchville * Byram Center. Crandon Lakes. Franklin * Hamburg * Highland Lakes. Hopatcong * Lake Mohawk. Layton. Newton * Ogdensburg *Increase or decrease the radius for Columbia | Towns within 25 mi of Columbia | Change Population Restrict to New Jersey State. This page will help you find a list of surrounding towns near Columbia, villages, cities nearby or close to the suburbs of Columbia within a 25 mile distance (40.23 km) of Columbia (New Jersey) to the north, south, east, or west of Columbia; generally within a 30 ...Cedar Key — Cedar Key is an American island city located in the Gulf of Mexico, just off the northwest coast of Florida. At the turn of the century, about 1/3rd of the population was Black, but now, there are near enough zero Black citizens living in this town. Cedar Key residents burned down a nearby Black town and killing several in 1923. ….

Jun 11, 2020 ... ... Jersey Shore town. ByJohn Kelly WABC logo ... New Jersey's criminal justice system that have disproportionately impacted Black New Jerseyans.There are absolutely still sundown towns. I'm in shock at how naive most of these comments are - either people are in denial or they don't have friends or follow Black people to know about the very real concerns. After last summer, there's really no excuse for being uninformed. Reply reply. blipsman.As a coastal state, watersheds in New Jersey are especially important. The health and vitality of New Jersey's waterways, lakes and estuaries depends on the responsible and safe ma... It WAS a Sundown town based on the criteria listed. It was indeed all White for a while. In fact, for short period between 1949 and 1950 George H. W. Bush and Lil W lived in Compton. Compton was also very rural at this time. Horses and cattle were owned by a lot of people in Compton. Jun 11, 2020 ... ... Jersey Shore town. ByJohn Kelly WABC logo ... New Jersey's criminal justice system that have disproportionately impacted Black New Jerseyans.houses for rent tonypandy gumtree sundown towns in new jerseyclarksville basketballclarksville basketballBy DETOUR Staff. Updated June 22, 2023 5:19 PM. The Midwest has the highest concentration of sundown towns in the U.S. Artwork by Brian Britigan. Sundown …Increase or decrease the radius for Bridgeton | Towns within 25 mi of Bridgeton | Change Population Restrict to New Jersey State. This page will help you find a list of surrounding towns near Bridgeton, villages, cities nearby or close to the suburbs of Bridgeton within a 25 mile distance (40.23 km) of Bridgeton (New Jersey) to the north, south, east, or west of Bridgeton; generally within a ...Increase or decrease the radius for Monroe Township | Towns within 45 mi of Monroe Township | Change Population Restrict to New Jersey State. This page will help you find a list of surrounding towns near Monroe Township, villages, cities nearby or close to the suburbs of Monroe Township within a 45 mile distance (72.41 km) of Monroe Township (New Jersey) to the north, south, east, or west of ...Calculate how much you'll pay in property taxes on your home, given your location and assessed home value. Compare your rate to the New Jersey and U.S. average. Calculators Helpful... List of sundown towns in new jersey, Here's how towns in North Jersey ranked. Bergen County. 2. Glen Rock: Population - 12,045 12. Ho-Ho-Kus: Population - 4,183 22. Northvale: Population - 4,985, Profiles for 116 cities, towns and other populated places in Cumberland County New Jersey. Incorporated Cities, Towns & Census Designated Places in Cumberland County. Incorporated Places have an asterisk (*). Arrowhead Lake. Bridgeton. Carlls Corner. Cedarville. Centre Grove. Cumberland-Hesstown. Deerfield Street. Delmont. Dorchester., At the peak of the exclusionary practice in 1970, an estimated 10,000 communities across the U.S. kept out African-Americans through "force, law, or custom." …, Percent making more than $200,000: 48.1% More:NJ property taxes: Phil Murphy, Bon Jovi paid more in Middletown in 2018 12. Mountain Lakes. County: Morris County Median household income: $175,556 ..., Students, citizens, and teachers can use the information they have gathered to help. In addition, Prof. Jean Moule, Oregon State U., has had several classes do research on sundown towns in OR. Here are some findings. Teaching for Change has a page with various ideas for how K-12 students have learned about sundown towns., black owned plantation new orleans; student houses nottingham arboretum; krow east agency; tirage du destin en 21 cartes sundown towns in new jersey. July 3, 2022 vw tiguan water leak passenger footwell 0 Comments. Please follow and like us: martha white cotton country cornbread mix recipes., Location: Utah. [This list is a work in progress. You can assess the information provided to form your own determination as to whether the town is a confirmed sundown town. If you have additional information, pro or con, please email it to us. Also note: some towns are * 'd. They are not suspected sundown towns but are listed for other ..., Method of Exclusion. Threat of Violence; Main Ethnic Group(s) Group(s) Excluded. Black; Comments. 7/2007. Your presentation on sundown towns recalled for me an incident related to me by friends who had experienced blatant racism in Bordentown NJ while on a trip from Washington, DC to New York City in 1934 or 1935., The owners of the infamous "Watcher" house in Westfield, New Jersey, have put it up for sale again. Here's why By clicking "TRY IT", I agree to receive newsletters and promotions f..., Photographs by Jordan Gale for The New Republic. On July 24, 2018, Debra Blake was banished from every park in Grants Pass, Oregon. She added the exclusion order to a growing pile of violations ..., The explosive story of racial exclusion in the north, from the American Book Award-winning author of Lies My Teacher Told Me As American as apple pie: Most suburbs in the United States were originally sundown towns. As part of the deepening racism that swept through the United States after 1890, town after town outside the traditional South became intentionally all-white, evicting their black ..., Long Valley is not a sundown town. It is simply in very rural northwest NJ. Very far from many urban areas, it is an old farm town. I can not say if it ever was. But as of 2008 there are blacks and hispanics enrolled in the local schools. And there are no racial problems. I have never heard anything about Long Valley being a sundown town., In 1999, I started researching sundown towns. These are overwhelmingly white communities that, for decades, stayed that way on purpose. The term derives from the signs that some towns posted at their corporate limits with warnings such as, "[N-word] Don't Let the Sun Go Down On You in Hawthorne," to quote the anti-greeting at the edge of Hawthorne, California, a suburb of Los Angeles., Arguably one of the most comprehensive books on the subject is James Loewen’s 2005 Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. He maintains a database of potential sundown towns to this day. Pomona isn’t on there, but Cherry Hill, New Jersey, where my father used to live, is. Hershey Park, where I went as a kid, is on it, too., , Ocean Grove, NJ. Ocean Grove is located in central Jersey outside of the city of Asbury Park, NJ. This town has changed since it opened many years ago. Today, I understand that the gates have been removed. I do know that African Americans worked in the town during the day and that they had to be out of the town by 6:00pm., This 500-seat theater is one of New Jersey's major venues for innovative dance, music, and theater. The Wellmont Theater downtown is a 2000-seat concert venue in a 100-year-old converted movie theater. Run by Live Nation (America's largest concert producer), the theater hosts major rock bands. The nonprofit-run Outpost In the Burbs ..., That book is called, appropriately enough, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension in American Racism. "Between 1890 and continuing until 1968, white Americans established thousands of towns for whites ..., The New Press ( August 2005) Hardcover $29.95 ( 576pp) 978-1-56584-887-. 2005 INDIES Finalist. Finalist, History (Adult Nonfiction) If slavery is white America's greatest crime committed against Black America, then "sundown towns" might be its best-kept dirty secret. Sundown towns are racist communities that prevented African Americans ..., Comanche, Texas itself is worth mentioning as Sundown Town in Texas, as there is a long history of racism and violence against African Americans. The town was founded in 1856, and by 1860, all of the town’s residents were white. In 1940, a Sundown Town book by James Loewen mentions that an organization in Comanche proudly said that their town ..., Well Hoboken is only 3.5% black whereas Jersey City is 25% black, so the numbers paint a bleak picture. The reality is its complicated, but due to racist housing policies that weren't banned until the mid 20th century and weren't fully gotten rid of until much later, neighborhoods in NJ ended up becoming very segregated, and that segregation happens to line up with town and school district ..., When the opportunity has arisen Canadians have shown themselves just as human as their southern neighbors. History is very nice style. history proved the knowledge. it's location in Canada. I've been reading a fair amount about racial issues lately and stumbled upon "Sundown Towns" in the USA (link below to wiki article if anyone is…., Calculations of sunrise and sunset in Jersey City - New Jersey - USA for May 2024. Generic astronomy calculator to calculate times for sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset for many cities, with daylight saving time and time zones taken in account., New Jersey Municipalities Search. This search will list municipalities by county with associated municipality, federal and legislative codes. Complete the optional search below to restrict the list or leave all options blank to list all …, That book is called, appropriately enough, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension in American Racism. "Between 1890 and continuing until 1968, white Americans established thousands of towns for whites ..., Sundown Towns. Sundown Towns are all-white communities, neighborhoods, or counties that exclude Blacks and other minorities through the use of discriminatory laws, harassment, and threats or use of violence. The name derives from the posted and verbal warnings issued to Blacks that although they might be allowed to work or travel in a community ..., Published August 26, 2021 at 11:40 AM MDT. Listen • 9:37. The sun sets over a field outside of Anna, Illinois. "Sundown towns" like Anna were places where Black people were allowed in during the day to work or shop but had to be gone by nightfall. Today, some still exist in various forms, enforced now by tradition and fear rather than by rules., Loewen, James W. Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. New York: The New Press, 2005. ———. “Sundown Towns and Counties: Racial Exclusion in the South.” Southern Cultures 15 (Spring 2009): 22–47. Morgan, Gordon D. Black Hillbillies of the Arkansas Ozarks. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Department …, In Toward New Towns for America, C. S. Stein treats Radburn, New Jersey; "the Greens" -- Greenbelt, Maryland, near Washington, DC; Greenhills, Ohio, near Cincinnati; and Greendale, Wisconsin, southwest of Milwaukee -- planned towns built by the FDR administration; and several other planned communities, all sundown towns, without ever mentioning ..., To the Editor: Re “From New Deal to New Hard Times, Eleanor Endures” (“This Land” series, front page, Dec. 25): Many communities in the United States remain “sundown towns,” where ..., made against him when we played in Towns County. That was the first time I heard that black people shouldn't be in Towns County after dark. This would have been about 1972 or 1973. There were rumors of threats. Yes, I was at the game. Nothing happened. Our team trounced them! It was Towns County HS. To my knowledge nothing was done about the ..., He wrote that Vonnegut, an Indianapolis native, grew up surrounded by sundown towns. Despite having evidence of more 100 towns in the Midwest and West with sundown signs, Loewen said Vonnegut's illustration is the only visual he has from the area. Credit JAMES LOEWEN, 'SUNDOWN TOWNS: A HIDDEN DIMENSION IN AMERICAN RACISM', Mar 5, 2024 · sundown town, in U.S. history, a town that excluded nonwhite people—most frequently African Americans —from remaining in town after sunset. More generally, sundown town is used to describe a place where the resident population was through deliberate action made to be overwhelmingly composed of white people. The methods for enforcing such ...